Critical thinking theory, teaching, and practice

This discussion covers key aspects of critical thinking theory, teaching, and practice with an emphasis on applying critical thinking skills within organizational/industrial and problem-solving contexts.

Part 1: Critical thinking theory
Part 2: Teaching critical thinking
Part 3: Critical thinking practice

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Part 1: Critical thinking theory

1.1. Key concepts and definitions of critical thinking

A definition analysis by Kompf and Bond (2001) suggests that critical thinking involves problem solving, decision making, metacognition, rationality, rational thinking, reasoning, knowledge, intelligence, as well as a moral component such as reflective thinking.

Critical thinking is the “intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action” (The U.S. National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking).

1.2. What constitutes critical thinking skills?

1.2.1. Thinking in a structured way – or reasoning systematically

Logic: a number of systems for reasoning systematically
Constructing and evaluating arguments (argumentation)
Logical arguments/valid arguments/sound arguments
Logical Fallacies
Understanding the logical connections between ideas (reasoning types, deductive, inductive)

Argument terminology scheme - critical thinking theory, teaching, and practice — Argument terminology used in logic (Hurley, P. J., 2014, A concise introduction to logic)

1.2.2. Analysis/evaluation/synthesis of evidence

Critical thinking skills include observation, interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation, and metacognition (Reynolds, 2011).

1.2.3. Problem-solving skills

Problem finding/asking effective questions
Fact finding
Problem definition
Idea finding (diverge and suspend judgement)
Evaluate and select (converge)
Plan
Acceptance
Action

1.2.4. Systematically reflecting on the justification of one’s own beliefs and values (and behavior)

Reflexivity
Cognitive biases

1.2.5. Critical thinking as communication skills

Reading, writing, speaking, and listening
Storytelling (who did what why where when)
Interpersonal skills
Rhetoric and dialectic
Hume’s passions

1.3. What are the defining elements of critical thinking?

Going back to the earliest definitions of the term (e.g., Glaser, 1941), the concept of critical thinking includes three interconnected elements: attitude, knowledge, and skills.

The ability to think critically … involves three things: ( 1 ) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one’s experiences, (2) knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and (3) some skill in applying those methods. Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends. It also generally requires ability to recognize problems, to find workable means for meeting those problems, to gather and marshal pertinent information, to recognize unstated assumptions and values, to comprehend and use language with accuracy, clarity, and discrimination, to interpret data, to appraise evidence and evaluate arguments, to recognize the existence (or non-existence) of logical relationships between propositions, to draw warranted conclusions and generalizations, to put to test the conclusions and generalizations at which one arrives, to reconstruct one’s patterns of beliefs on the basis of wider experience, and to render accurate judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life. (Edward M. Glaser, 1941. An Experiment in the Development of Critical Thinking)

1.4. The intellectual roots of critical thinking

The first intellectual wave of critical thinking: logic, rationalism, and reason

The second intellectual wave of critical thinking: subjectivity and creativity

Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, the Greek skeptics, Thomas Aquinas, Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Kant

John Dewey’s constructivism

Critical thinking and social theory: Hegemony/Gramsci; Max Weber/the rationalization of labor; Scientific management/Taylorism; Marx/exploitation of labor; Durkheim/the division of labor; Foucault/disciplinary society

1.5. Philosophical and theoretical grounding of critical thinking

1.5.1. Knowledge theory: skepticism, philosophy, epistemology

1.5.2. How do we assess knowledge?

How do we decide what is right or wrong?
Ethical perspectives, moral philosophy
How do we decide what is true or false?
Non-justificationism
Classical rationalism, empiricism
Critical rationalism, pragmatism
The Popper/Kuhn debate

1.5.3. Learning theories: Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, connectivism

Part 2: Teaching critical thinking

2.1. The challenges of integrating critical thinking skills into higher education curricula

Critical thinking is currently not being taught effectively at the college and university level though it is possible to do so (Cosgrove, 2011; Stigler & Hiebert, 2009).

There is a disconnect between what educators in higher education say about the importance of critical thinking skills, how critical thinking is taught in higher education, and what critical thinking skills employers say they need in university graduates.

2.2. How to teach critical thinking skills effectively in higher education

Critical thinking should be taught explicitly, contextualized within academic disciplines; taught critical thinking skills must be put into deliberate (hands on) practice; critical thinking should be taught in a systematic way (as a structured approach to problem solving); and critical thinking taught should respect both the subjectivity of the learner and the inter-subjectivity of knowledge.

2.3. Structuring and assessing the learning process

Operationalization of critical thinking concepts into teaching/research models and techniques
Strategies and tools for improving the effectiveness of instruction
How to design critical thinking into higher education curricula
Critical thinking teaching techniques
The Socratic method
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Inquiry-based learning
Assessing critical thinking skills
The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Test

2.4. What academic programs in higher education teach critical thinking?

2.5. What jobs/careers/certifications in critical thinking are available for professional development? Professional organizations or associations?

2.6. What are the main research areas/debates that currently exist in critical thinking academic research?

Part 3: Critical thinking practice

3.1. Value-adding critical thinking skills

3.1.1. Communication/interpersonal communication/collaboration

3.1.2. Leadership – leading collaboration and organizational change

3.1.3. Problem solving skills

Analytical skills: problem definition, data collection and analysis/evaluation, drawing conclusions and making recommendations, and report writing.

Divergent thinking, lateral thinking, out of the box thinking

3.2. Critical thinking, creativity, invention, and innovation

Critical – seeking change or improvement (pragmatic); analyzing and coming to conclusions/reasoning.

Invention – physical/material invention or method of reasoning or process.

3.3. Innovation

3.3.1. Change and improvement (personal development, social progress) and how to do so (change management-people/relationships, technology, process, rules)

3.3.2. Regulation/governance (innovation for social impact)

Knowledge management and risk management

3.3.3. Applied creativity

A systematic approach to innovation (leveraging research in behavioral science, cognitive psychology, and social sciences to improve system efficiency/performance – process, flow, interactions; technology, human resources; knowledge, etc.)

3.4. Critical thinking models applied in business management/R&D

Three models and case studies

1. Applied creativity – emphasizes structured analytical-divergent thinking for innovation (problem solving, change management), e.g., Simplex Creative Problem Solving Process (Basadur, 1995)

The Simplex process provides a systematic approach for problem solving that encourages innovation and creativity through critical thinking. Simplex takes participants through 8 steps from problem finding to action, by applying creative thinking skills of diverging, converging and deferral of judgment.

2. Divergent thinking – emphasizes novel, innovative thinking, e.g., Six Thinking Hats (de Bono, 1985)

3. Content analysis – emphasizes analytical skills/finding themes (making logical connections and drawing conclusions) and interpreting meaning

Critical thinking theory, teaching, and practice

Part 1: Critical thinking theory

Part 2: Teaching critical thinking

Part 3: Critical thinking practice

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Part 1: Critical thinking theory

Part 2: Teaching critical thinking

Part 3: Critical thinking practice

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